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===Other risk factors and prevention===
===Other risk factors and prevention===
===Non-genetic===
{{See also|Environmental health|Exposome}}
Multi-decade studies have identified an increased likelihood of Parkinson's in association with agricultural work, [[pesticide]] exposure, and rural habitation. Chlorinated solvents, used in commercial and industrial application like dry cleaning and degreasing, are associated with increased PD risk, particularly [[trichloroethylene]].<ref name="TCEinvisible">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dorsey ER, Zafar M, Lettenberger SE, et al |title=Trichloroethylene: An Invisible Cause of Parkinson's Disease? |journal=J Parkinsons Dis |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=203–218 |date=2023 |pmid=36938742 |doi=10.3233/JPD-225047 |pmc=10041423 }}</ref><ref name="simon3">{{cite journal|vauthors=Simon DK, Tanner CM, Brundin P|date=2020|title=Parkinson Disease Epidemiology, Pathology, Genetics, and Pathophysiology|url= |journal=Clinical Geriatric Medicine|volume=36|issue=1|pages=1–12|doi=10.1016/j.cger.2019.08.002 |pmid=31733690|s2cid=201961979|pmc=6905381}}</ref> Other chemical risk factors include [[manganese]], [[Air pollution|suspended particles from traffic fumes]], and exposure to other [[heavy metals]] such as [[mercury (element)|mercury]] and [[lead]].<ref name="simon3"/><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bjorklund G, Stejskal V, Urbina MA, Dadar M, Chirumbolo S, Mutter J |title=Metals and Parkinson's Disease: Mechanisms and Biochemical Processes |journal=Curr Med Chem |volume=25 |issue=19 |pages=2198–2214 |date=2018 |pmid=29189118 |doi=10.2174/0929867325666171129124616 |s2cid=4648656 |url= https://www.rapaluruguay.org/sitio_1/agrotoxicos/COPs/Parkinson_metals_dental_amalgam%20_2018_r.pdf}}</ref> [[Traumatic brain injuries]] (TBIs) are strongly implicated as risk factors for PD.<ref name="delic">{{cite journal|vauthors=Delic V, Beck KD, Pang KC, Citron BA|date=2020|title=Biological links between traumatic brain injury and Parkinson's disease|journal=Acta Neuropathologica Communications|volume=8|issue=1|page=45 |doi=10.1186/s40478-020-00924-7 |pmid=32264976|pmc=7137235 |ref=Delic |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Some medical drugs are implicated in parkinsonism; drug-induced parkinsonism is normally reversible by stopping the offending agent,{{sfn|Simon|Greenberg|Aminoff|2017|p= page number needed}} such as [[phenothiazine]]s, [[butyrophenone]]s, [[metoclopramide]], and [[Tetrabenazine]]. [[MPTP]] is a drug known for causing irreversible parkinsonism that is commonly used in animal-model research.{{sfn|Simon|Greenberg|Aminoff|2017|p= page number needed}}<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Langston JW | title = The MPTP Story | journal = Journal of Parkinson's Disease | volume = 7 | issue = s1 | pages = S11–S19 | date = 6 March 2017 | pmid = 28282815 | pmc = 5345642 | doi = 10.3233/JPD-179006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Song L, Xu MB, Zhou XL, Zhang DP, Zhang SL, Zheng GQ | title = A Preclinical Systematic Review of Ginsenoside-Rg1 in Experimental Parkinson's Disease | journal = Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity | volume = 2017 | pages = 2163053 | date = 2017 | pmid = 28386306 | pmc = 5366755 | doi = 10.1155/2017/2163053 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Low concentrations of [[Uric acid|urate]] in the blood are associated with an increased risk.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors= Chahine LM, Stern MB, Chen-Plotkin A |title=Blood-based biomarkers for Parkinson's disease |journal=Parkinsonism & Related Disorders |volume=20 |issue= Suppl 1 |pages=S99–103 |date=January 2014 |pmid=24262199 |pmc=4070332 |doi=10.1016/S1353-8020(13)70025-7}}</ref> Moreover, a possible link exists between PD and ''[[Helicobacter pylori]]'' infection that can prevent the absorption of some drugs, including levodopa.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Çamcı G, Oğuz S|title=Association between Parkinson's Disease and ''Helicobacter Pylori''|journal=Journal of Clinical Neurology|volume=12|issue=2|pages=147–150|date=April 2016|pmid=26932258|pmc=4828559|doi=10.3988/jcn.2016.12.2.147}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=McGee DJ, Lu XH, Disbrow EA|title=Stomaching the Possibility of a Pathogenic Role for Helicobacter pylori in Parkinson's Disease|journal=Journal of Parkinson's Disease|volume=8|issue=3|pages=367–374 | year = 2018|pmid=29966206|pmc=6130334|doi=10.3233/JPD-181327}}</ref>

Exposure to [[Paraquat#Parkinson's disease|paraquat]], [[Rotenone#Parkinson's disease|rotenone]] and other pesticides are associated with the onset of Parkinson's disease.<ref name="Lancet2021">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bloem BR, Okun MS, Klein C |title=Parkinson's disease |journal=Lancet |volume=397 |issue=10291 |pages=2284–2303 |date=June 2021 |pmid=33848468 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00218-X |url=https://repository.ubn.ru.nl//bitstream/handle/2066/235670/235670.pdf |quote="…However, this more accurate diagnostic process cannot explain why the age-adjusted prevalence of Parkinson's disease is growing faster than other neurological disorders, including diseases such as multiple sclerosis, which has seen substantial advances in diagnostic approaches. Other factors potentially contributing to this rise include prolonged survival and environmental pollution with toxins, such as pesticides (eg, paraquat) or chemicals (eg, trichloroethylene), known to be harmful to Parkinson's disease-related neurons and brain circuits"}}</ref><ref name="NIEHS2023">{{cite web |date=3 November 2023 |title=Parkinson's Disease |url=https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/conditions/parkinson/index.cfm |access-date=4 December 2023 |website=National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences |publisher=NIEHS}}{{PD-notice}}</ref>

Exercise in middle age may reduce the risk of PD later in life.<ref name=Neuro2011>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ahlskog JE | title = Does vigorous exercise have a neuroprotective effect in Parkinson disease? | journal = Neurology | volume = 77 | issue = 3 | pages = 288–294 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 21768599 | pmc = 3136051 | doi = 10.1212/wnl.0b013e318225ab66 }}</ref> There were studies done regarding how physical activity (exercise) prevents parkinsons. The results of these studies have shown us a 34% reduction in parkinsons disease risk amongst individuals who perform moderate to vigorous physical activity. The potential benefits of exercise in individuals with parkinsons disease is an area that is investigated on.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ascherio |first1=Alberto |last2=Schwarzschild |first2=Michael A |date=November 2016 |title=The epidemiology of Parkinson's disease: risk factors and prevention |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1474442216302307 |journal=The Lancet Neurology |language=en |volume=15 |issue=12 |pages=1257–1272 |doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(16)30230-7|pmid=27751556 |s2cid=19994300 }}</ref>
Exercise in middle age may reduce the risk of PD later in life.<ref name=Neuro2011>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ahlskog JE | title = Does vigorous exercise have a neuroprotective effect in Parkinson disease? | journal = Neurology | volume = 77 | issue = 3 | pages = 288–294 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 21768599 | pmc = 3136051 | doi = 10.1212/wnl.0b013e318225ab66 }}</ref> There were studies done regarding how physical activity (exercise) prevents parkinsons. The results of these studies have shown us a 34% reduction in parkinsons disease risk amongst individuals who perform moderate to vigorous physical activity. The potential benefits of exercise in individuals with parkinsons disease is an area that is investigated on.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ascherio |first1=Alberto |last2=Schwarzschild |first2=Michael A |date=November 2016 |title=The epidemiology of Parkinson's disease: risk factors and prevention |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1474442216302307 |journal=The Lancet Neurology |language=en |volume=15 |issue=12 |pages=1257–1272 |doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(16)30230-7|pmid=27751556 |s2cid=19994300 }}</ref>


Revision as of 21:22, 13 April 2024

Other risk factors and prevention

Non-genetic

See also: Environmental health and Exposome

Multi-decade studies have identified an increased likelihood of Parkinson's in association with agricultural work, pesticide exposure, and rural habitation. Chlorinated solvents, used in commercial and industrial application like dry cleaning and degreasing, are associated with increased PD risk, particularly trichloroethylene.[1][2] Other chemical risk factors include manganese, suspended particles from traffic fumes, and exposure to other heavy metals such as mercury and lead.[2][3] Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) are strongly implicated as risk factors for PD.[4]

Some medical drugs are implicated in parkinsonism; drug-induced parkinsonism is normally reversible by stopping the offending agent,[5] such as phenothiazines, butyrophenones, metoclopramide, and Tetrabenazine. MPTP is a drug known for causing irreversible parkinsonism that is commonly used in animal-model research.[5][6][7] Low concentrations of urate in the blood are associated with an increased risk.[8] Moreover, a possible link exists between PD and Helicobacter pylori infection that can prevent the absorption of some drugs, including levodopa.[9][10]

Exposure to paraquat, rotenone and other pesticides are associated with the onset of Parkinson's disease.[11][12]

Exercise in middle age may reduce the risk of PD later in life.[13] There were studies done regarding how physical activity (exercise) prevents parkinsons. The results of these studies have shown us a 34% reduction in parkinsons disease risk amongst individuals who perform moderate to vigorous physical activity. The potential benefits of exercise in individuals with parkinsons disease is an area that is investigated on.[14]

Caffeine appears protective with a greater decrease in risk occurring with a larger intake of caffeinated beverages such as coffee.[15]

Studies have identified an association between methamphetamine use and PD risk;[16][note 1] studies have found contradictory results regarding alcohol use and PD.[17]

Although the underlying cause is unknown, melanoma is a widely-documented risk factor for PD.[18]



Increased dairy consumption is a risk factor, potentially due to heptachlor epoxide contamination or urate-depleting effects.[16]

Antioxidants, such as vitamins C and E, have been proposed to protect against the disease, but results of studies have been contradictory and no positive effect has been shown.[19] The results regarding fat and fatty acids have been contradictory.[19] Use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and calcium channel blockers may be protective.[20] A 2010 meta-analysis found that NSAIDs (apart from aspirin), have been associated with at least a 15% (higher in long-term and regular users) reduction in the incidence of the development of PD.[21] As microglial activation coincides with PD's neurodegeneration, it has been suggested that NSAIDs may suppress pro-inflammatory microglial responses.[22] Subsequent studies have reported conflicting results.[22] As of 2019 meta-analyses have failed to confirm this link. Multiple studies have demonstrated a link between the use of ibuprofen and a decreased risk of Parkinson's development.[23]

References

Journal articles

  • Ascherio A, Schwarzschild MA (November 2016). "The epidemiology of Parkinson's disease: risk factors and prevention". Lancet Neurology. 15 (12): 1257–1272. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(16)30230-7. PMID 27751556.

Crap

  1. ^ Dorsey ER, Zafar M, Lettenberger SE, et al. (2023). "Trichloroethylene: An Invisible Cause of Parkinson's Disease?". J Parkinsons Dis. 13 (2): 203–218. doi:10.3233/JPD-225047. PMC 10041423. PMID 36938742.
  2. ^ a b Simon DK, Tanner CM, Brundin P (2020). "Parkinson Disease Epidemiology, Pathology, Genetics, and Pathophysiology". Clinical Geriatric Medicine. 36 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.cger.2019.08.002. PMC 6905381. PMID 31733690. S2CID 201961979.
  3. ^ Bjorklund G, Stejskal V, Urbina MA, Dadar M, Chirumbolo S, Mutter J (2018). "Metals and Parkinson's Disease: Mechanisms and Biochemical Processes" (PDF). Curr Med Chem. 25 (19): 2198–2214. doi:10.2174/0929867325666171129124616. PMID 29189118. S2CID 4648656.
  4. ^ Delic V, Beck KD, Pang KC, Citron BA (2020). "Biological links between traumatic brain injury and Parkinson's disease". Acta Neuropathologica Communications. 8 (1): 45. doi:10.1186/s40478-020-00924-7. PMC 7137235. PMID 32264976.
  5. ^ a b Simon, Greenberg & Aminoff 2017, p. page number needed.
  6. ^ Langston JW (6 March 2017). "The MPTP Story". Journal of Parkinson's Disease. 7 (s1): S11–S19. doi:10.3233/JPD-179006. PMC 5345642. PMID 28282815.
  7. ^ Song L, Xu MB, Zhou XL, Zhang DP, Zhang SL, Zheng GQ (2017). "A Preclinical Systematic Review of Ginsenoside-Rg1 in Experimental Parkinson's Disease". Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 2017: 2163053. doi:10.1155/2017/2163053. PMC 5366755. PMID 28386306.
  8. ^ Chahine LM, Stern MB, Chen-Plotkin A (January 2014). "Blood-based biomarkers for Parkinson's disease". Parkinsonism & Related Disorders. 20 (Suppl 1): S99–103. doi:10.1016/S1353-8020(13)70025-7. PMC 4070332. PMID 24262199.
  9. ^ Çamcı G, Oğuz S (April 2016). "Association between Parkinson's Disease and Helicobacter Pylori". Journal of Clinical Neurology. 12 (2): 147–150. doi:10.3988/jcn.2016.12.2.147. PMC 4828559. PMID 26932258.
  10. ^ McGee DJ, Lu XH, Disbrow EA (2018). "Stomaching the Possibility of a Pathogenic Role for Helicobacter pylori in Parkinson's Disease". Journal of Parkinson's Disease. 8 (3): 367–374. doi:10.3233/JPD-181327. PMC 6130334. PMID 29966206.
  11. ^ Bloem BR, Okun MS, Klein C (June 2021). "Parkinson's disease" (PDF). Lancet. 397 (10291): 2284–2303. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00218-X. PMID 33848468. …However, this more accurate diagnostic process cannot explain why the age-adjusted prevalence of Parkinson's disease is growing faster than other neurological disorders, including diseases such as multiple sclerosis, which has seen substantial advances in diagnostic approaches. Other factors potentially contributing to this rise include prolonged survival and environmental pollution with toxins, such as pesticides (eg, paraquat) or chemicals (eg, trichloroethylene), known to be harmful to Parkinson's disease-related neurons and brain circuits
  12. ^ "Parkinson's Disease". National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. NIEHS. 3 November 2023. Retrieved 4 December 2023.Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  13. ^ Ahlskog JE (July 2011). "Does vigorous exercise have a neuroprotective effect in Parkinson disease?". Neurology. 77 (3): 288–294. doi:10.1212/wnl.0b013e318225ab66. PMC 3136051. PMID 21768599.
  14. ^ Ascherio, Alberto; Schwarzschild, Michael A (November 2016). "The epidemiology of Parkinson's disease: risk factors and prevention". The Lancet Neurology. 15 (12): 1257–1272. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(16)30230-7. PMID 27751556. S2CID 19994300.
  15. ^ Costa J, Lunet N, Santos C, Santos J, Vaz-Carneiro A (2010). "Caffeine exposure and the risk of Parkinson's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies". Journal of Alzheimer's Disease. 20 (Suppl 1): S221–238. doi:10.3233/JAD-2010-091525. PMID 20182023.
  16. ^ a b c Ascherio 2016, pp. 1259.
  17. ^ Ascherio 2016, pp. 1261.
  18. ^ Ascherio 2016, pp. 1260.
  19. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference pmid16713924 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  20. ^ Cite error: The named reference Lancet2015 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  21. ^ Gagne JJ, Power MC (March 2010). "Anti-inflammatory drugs and risk of Parkinson disease: a meta-analysis". Neurology. 74 (12): 995–1002. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181d5a4a3. PMC 2848103. PMID 20308684.
  22. ^ a b Ascherio 2016, pp. 1265.
  23. ^ Elkouzi A, Vedam-Mai V, Eisinger RS, Okun MS (April 2019). "Emerging therapies in Parkinson disease – repurposed drugs and new approaches". Nat Rev Neurol. 15 (4): 204–223. doi:10.1038/s41582-019-0155-7. PMC 7758837. PMID 30867588.


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